Soaring Wings

[EXCLUSIVE]

By Pu R.Th.Varte, Senior Anthropological Officer, Shillong.

(A brief paper presented during the First International Conference on Shan Studies (15-17th Oct, 2009) at Chulalongkon University, Bangkok, Thailand.)

INTRODUCTION

Due to development in education, more exposure and better facilities and then, the arrival of better technology, especially the computer and the internet, researches and studies into the subject has been facilitated to a great extent.

Based on available primary data, there is enough evidence to suggest that some tribes of the Mizo-Chin- Kuki- groups like the Hmars are descended or at least, related/cognate to the larger Shan group of present Myanmar and elsewhere. The present paper, therefore, delves in into the obscure but interesting history of these groups whose origin, ancestry and descent, even though vague, speaks of a Shan connection. Let us, therefore, briefly discuss on how this Shan connection came about through an ethnographic cultural anthropology approach.

The present paper will seek to proceed on its attempt to study those tribes in the North East India those who falls under the greater Mizo-Chin –Kuki Group like the Hmars, Lushais and some Kuki tribes who, according to their folk narratives and songs purportedly refer to a Shan origin or something akin to that. Those falling under the Mizo- Chin- Kuki groups include tribes and sub- tribes such as:

Mizo: (a) Hmar (b) Lusei (c) Ralte (d) Biete (e) Hrangkhol (f) Bawm (g) Darlong, (h) Mara (i) Lai (j) Chiru, etc.

Chin: (a) Paite (b) Teddim (c) Zou (d) Vaiphei (e) Gangte (f) Simte,

Kuki1: (a) Thadou (b) Haokip (e) Khongsai (f) Kipgen, etc

For many, this claim of the other cognate tribes may find validity due to the reason that these tribes share many common history, folktales, and socio- cultural practices. The purpose of this paper is also not to prove or disprove of these claims but for the sake of accuracy and consistencies, will take the Hmars as a case study as the only source of evidence of claimed Mizo- Chin- Kuki Shan connection is through the Hmar’s oral narratives.

A BRIEF ANTHROPOMETRIC INTRODUCTION.

Even though physical data on the Shans are not available for comparison with the Hmars or any Mizo- Chin- Kuki groups, NEICICDS and Varte et al collected data on physical characteristics of the Hmars in the Indian states of Mizoram and Meghalaya with the hope that such collection of data could be used in further study regarding the origin and proximity of these tribes with the Shans and other population in South- East Asia. I include two parameters

Table 1- Age, body weight and stature of the Hmars of Mizoram an  Meghalaya.

	Age				Body weight				Stature
	Male		Female		Male		Female		Male		Female
	Meg	Mz	Meg	Mz	Meg	Mz	Meg	Mz	Meg	Mz	Meg	Mz
Mean	31.7	37.86	31.82	35.23	65.67	53.66	54.41	46.71	165.41	159.92	153.08	150.31
SD	10.96	11.03	9.69	10.21	8.82	6.54	8.81	6.57	4.90	5.46	5.65	5.42
Max	59.00	60.00	57.00	60.00	91.00	76.00	80.00	74.00	177.80	189.20	165.30	183.30
Min	23.00	19.00	23.00	21.00	50.00	37.00	41.00	33.00	155.50	141.30	140.70	138.20
Skew	0.66	0.18	1.17	0.50	0.60	0.54	0.79	0.73	0.11	0.36	-0.34	1.34
No.	48	389	57.00	354.00	47	389	57	354	48	389	57	354
T-test	1.61		2.44		9.03		6.32		7.22		3.45

Abbreviations used: Meg- Meghalaya, Mz- Mizoram, SD- Standard Deviation.

Table 3- Comparison of Anthropometric Variables of the Hmar with other population.

POPULATION
Variables/indices	European	Pakistan	Hmar		Nishi
	Male	Male	Male	Female	Male	Female
BMI	25.9	25.2	24.0	23.2	-	-
Systolic	133.8	125.0	124.15	112.82	119.41	128.10
Diastolic	75.9	77.6	79.65	74.09	96.81	96.25
Pulse Rate	-	-	76.47	81.20	73.78	77.16

Abbreviation used: BMI- Body Mass Index

Table 3 shows the blood pressures of the Hmars and Nishis where both systolic and diastolic have more mean value among the males than the females. In spite of obesity, the blood pressures of the Hmars and Nishis are in normal range for both the sexes. Even the female mean value is lower than normal for both the Hmars and Nishis i.e. below 80mm/hg. But the pulse rate is found to be higher among the females of both communities. Among Hmar males, the systolic pressure shows a lower value than the Europeans and the Pakistanis, but higher than those of the Nishis. In case of diastolic pressure, it is higher than those of the Europeans and Pakistanis, but lower than that of the Nishis. Among the Hmar females, the systolic and diastolic pressure is lower than that of the Nishis.

ORAL LITERATURE

The Hmars had a poetic bent of mind and composed verses to narrate their likes and dislikes, their joys and sorrows, their memorable adventures and experiences in the course of their wandering from China to their present habitats in different parts of North East India that are orally transmitted from generation to generation. In this connection, L. Ruoivel Pangamte, in his ‘The Hmar Literature: A Critical Review’, observed thus: “The fact that the Hmars had a poetic bend of mind is clearly demonstrate by the numerous songs and verses that have been orally transmitted to the present generation from their forefathers. They composed verses to narrate their experiences, to express their feelings, to communicate their thoughts and to describe what they had seen and done in life. They also prayed and worshipped their god and gods in the language of poetry. It was this same language which was applied to tell what they valued and held in high esteem in their social, economic, cultural and political life.Some popular folk songs sung at different occasions of a Hmar’s life in the pre-Christian era. some popular folk songs sung at different occasions of a Hmar’s life in the pre-Christian era.

Sikpui Lam (Sikpui Dance); Hranglam Hla (Warrior’s song).  What the Hmars admire most in the past were successful accomplishments in tribal wars and hunts. The head of wild animals and  enemies they killed were big trophies. The Sikpui and Hranglam Hla contain 44 verses.Other folks songs which were sung o specific important occasion are- Darlam Hla (songs of the Gong Dance), Loneina Hla (Songs of agricultural activities), Lohma Hla (Songs of Jhum-field work), Lenglai Hla (Songs of the youths), Semruk Hla (A special song of the youths), Sakhuo Hla (Religious songs), Hlado (Songs of victory),In hnelna hla ( Songs of games).

‘ MANY OF THE HMAR FOLKSONGS ARE NOT JUST ORDINARY SONGS BUT A TIME DEPICTS THE SOCIO-CULTURAL LIFE, HISTORY,JOURNEY,BELIEFS ETC.’

ORIGIN

Out of the traditional accounts that had been handed down through generations is that, the Mizo-Kuki-Chin groups came out of the bowels of the earth or a cave called Sinlung or Chinlung or Khul, the location of which was believed by some to be somewhere in China during the reign of Chinese Emperor Chinglung or Chie’nlung around 200 BC. Enriquez (1932:7-8) was emphatic and had an ample scientific data at his command to prove that, Mongolian races who now occupy South-East Asia and also North East India originated from Western China lying between the sources of the Yangtze and the Hwang-Ho rivers. They initially moved towards the west of Myanmar (Burma) and after that, migrated to India. Numerous poems, songs and tales about this place has been made and handed down from generation to generation. A description about this exodus from Sinlung is available in one of the Hmars’ song3:

A SONG  DEPICTING THE EXODUS OF THE HMARS

FROM SINLUNG

Khaw Sinlung/ Chin-lung4 ah

Kawt siel ang ka zuongsuok a;

Mi le nel lo tam a e,

Hriemi hrai a.

English Translation:

From Sinlung

I jumped out like a Bos-Frontalis(Mithun) from its captivity;

Innumerable were the encounters,

With the children of men.

However, the exact location of Sinlung is still open to debate. Therefore,several theories and views regarding the origin and location of Sinlung have been forwarded, some of which are:

a) Sinlung must be somewhere in South West China, possibly in the present Tailing or Silung of Yunnan Province of today’s China.

b) It might have been Sining in central China.

c) It might have been derived from the Chin Dynasty of 221-207 B.C.

d) Sinlung was located at Aopatong in the border of Burma and China. The town was named after the chief Silung during the erection of the Great Wall of China.

e) It might be the present Sinlung, located near the Yulung River in Szechuan Province of China.

THE HMARS AFTER THE EXODUS FROM SINLUNG

Dr. Edward Thomas Williams, a historian, “violated all the rules of courteous warfare, triumphed and took over the territory and symbols of the rule of the Chou dynasty”. It is, therefore,believed that the Hmars might have been part of the larger Shan group who also moved out of Yunnan during this period and then settled in Shan. Hmar folk tales and songs tell us that the second settlement of the Hmars was in Shan, which was marked by a time of prosperity and peace. Hranglien Songate, a Hmar historian wrote, “In Shan their civilization advanced much farther than Sinlung; and the people showed greater intelligence. They knew how to celebrate agricultural prosperity, learned better art of war, and made festival of the victory over the enemy. Furthermore, they learned the use of iron implements and moulding of tobacco pipes. This way they came to have proper means of livelihood.” (Hranglien: 1972) Many of the Hmar festivals such as Butukhuonglawm (Spring festival), Lunglâk (Autumn festival) and Sesun (Solemn Bison Piercing ritual) have their origin here in Shan. That they also started the practice of headhunting in Shan is also evident in one of their song.

THE EARLIEST KNOWN HEADHUNTING SONG BELIEVED TO BE COMPOSED  WHILE IN SHAN

Ka pa lamtlâk an tha’n dang,

Sinlung lamtlâk a tha’n dang;

Shan5 khuoah tha povin vang,

Tuoichawngin hranlu an tlunna;

Thlomu sieka kem in hril,

Za inhawngah hranlu bah kan sâl.

English translation:

My father’s steps were distinctively good,

Sinlung’s steps were, indeed, distinctively good;

Few are the good men in Shan State,

Where Tuoichawng brought the enemy’s head;

You talked of tips with eagle’s claws, (meaning war)

And we hang the heads high with ropes.

THE HMAR AFTER SHAN.

Hmar historians wrote that this period of prosperity and peace in Shan was interrupted by a calamitous famine. As a result, the Hmars had to move further. And from Shan they were believed to have moved towards Kachin land, believed to be in the present Northern Burma (Myanmar), probably in and around Hukwang Valley at the foot of the Eastern Himalayas. This belief is substantiated by the similarity of language between the people of this region and the Hmar language till date6. Of Kachin land they sang:

Of Kachin land they sang:

Tiena Kachin lei,

Ka pu leilung Himalawi.

English translation:

Ancient Kachin,

And Himalawi the land of my forefathers.

Salient feature of the Kachin settlement

As Hranglien Songate suggested, the name Himalaya was originally given by this people. He wrote that, as they came to the foot of the great mountain they decided, “Hi ei hma a tlang hi chu lawi el ei tih,” (Let us circumvent this mountain before us). They named this mountain ‘Hi-hma-lawi tlang’ (Hi- This, Hma- In front/ front, Lawi- Go around/ Circumvent). Here they met another tribe known to them as the Misimis or Mishmis. According to oral traditions, Sura, one of the forefathers of the Hmars and a well-known cultural hero fall in love with a Misimi girl named Thairanchawng and married her during those days.

The Hmars after kachin

From Kachin the Hmars are believed to have moved to Kawlphai Khampat in the Kabaw Valley of Burma (Myanmar), probably by moving along the foot of the Patkai Hill Range. Here, they had three Rengs (chiefs) – Luopui, Lersi and Zingthlo- under whom they greatly prospered. Luopui ruled over the central part of the land while Lersi and Zingthlo ruled over the northern and southern parts respectively. While they were in Khampat, Luopui planted the now-famous Banyan tree that still remains traceable.

OF THE KABAW VALLEY, THEY SUNG :

Simah Lersi, Hmarah Zingthlo,

Khawmalaiah Luopui;

Luoipui in lenbung a phun,

Khawthlang puolrangin tlan e.

English translation:

On the south is Chief Lersi,

On the north, Chief Zingthlo;

At the center, Chief Luopui;

Luopui planted a banyan tree,

The hornbills feed on its fruits

ON THE CHAMPHAI, INDIA

Further oral history of the Hmars points to the evidence that from Khampat, Chief Lersi was said to move towards the plains of Shan while others moved southward and settled in and around Champhai of today’s Mizoram.

A song depicting the Hmars’ entry into India.

From Khampat, it is believed that, except for Chief Lersi and some of his followers who returned to Shan, the rest of the Hmars followed the Rûn River (Imphal River) and made settlements on its banks. As they moved southwards, following the Rûn River, they moved along with the Raltes. This was clear from one of their song:

Rûntui kawi e,

Raltenu le Raltepa leh kan inkawia,

Rûntui kawi e.

English translation:

Meandering Rûn,

We moved along with Ralte lady and Ralte man,

Meandering Rûn.

Chronology of Hmar History, Manmasi Year Book, 2006

220 – 207 BC – Sinlung (China) settlement

200 -Migration from Sinlung (China)

98 -  Shan (Myanmar) settlement

400  AD – Luopui Thiek Planted the famous Bungpui tree at the central part of Shan

(Myanmar)

410 – Migration from Shan (Myanmar)

1203 – Hmars’ Migration to Mizoram

SOCIAL LIFE

1. Village Administration:

Chief (Lal) – Chief Councilor  (Muolkil Mitha) – Councilors (Khawnbawls).

2. Main functions of the Chief and the councilors:

• The village council combines in itself both judicial and administrative powers. The chief was armed with extrajudicial power, which nobody could question.
• The autocratic position of the chief can further be demonstrated by the manner in which the councilor, priests and youth commanders were selected or appointed by the chief from a wealthy and influential group of person who were also senior members of various sub-clans.
• The Lal-ship and Khawnbawl-ship were hereditary.
• Each household was under obligation to pay Busung-Sadar (the practice of paying every year a certain specified quantity of paddy and of surrendering the fore-legs of every animal shot or trapped within the chiefdom) and to render compulsory labor (which involved building or rebuilding the chief’s house or any other community works) to a chief.

Family and lineage Segments :

* The Family was patriarchal.

* In a Hmar society, there was both conjugal (nuclear) and extended family which normally consisted of male members of a lineage of two to three generations.

Marriage

• Hmar society is monogamous.
• Clan exogamy.
• Tribe endogamy.
• Preferred marriage was matrilineal cross-cousin marriage.
• The bride-price was normally classified into various shares :
• (1) Man-pui (if received in kind, it consisted of mithun/ Buffalo gong etc.) and this went to the bride’s parents;

• (2) Panghak (some portion of the bride-price given to the bride’s parent’s kinsmen);

• (3) Pusum (a portion given to the bride’s maternal uncle (Pu);
• (4) Nisum ( a portion given to the bride’s father’s sister); and
• (5) Zuorman (a small portion given to the bride’s friends and cousins

Traditional Religion

• The traditional religion which the Hmars practiced during the pre-Christian era was animistic.

• They believed in one supreme god called “Khuopa”.
• The main deity was a goddess called “Khuonu”.
• The main religious head was called “Thiempu”.
• Types of Spirits:

1. Khawchom (which used to kill domestic animals),

1. Khuovang (name of a guardian spirit),
2. Zasam (a dreadful beast which lived in the forest,
3. Phuong or Khawhring (which caused sudden dizziness and miserable sickness) and,
4. Lasi (good feminine spirits which blessed the hunters and often married them).

Belief in life after death

1. The death men’s abode (Mithikhuo) was believed to be underground.
2. Pielral was considered to be the ‘abode of bliss’ and that only the soul of a Thangsuo, who performed heroic deeds and achieved unparalled honour during his lifetime can go there.

Economic activity

• The main activity of the Hmars centered on food-production and almost all their festivals were connected with it.
• The age-old mode of production was shifting-cultivation (jhuming), which is still in practice.
• The village council had a session at the beginning of every year, called Pamrorel, and opened a certain areas of land for cultivation.
• The striking features of Hmar economic activity was community labor (Lawmpui) and mutual assistance.
• The most popular form of community labour among the Hmars was Butukhuonglawm which was organized at the time of sowing.

Leadership :

1 . Traditional Leaders:

• Traditional leaders include the chief (Lal), the councilor (Muolkilmitha/Khawbawl-upa), the priests (Thiempu) and the youth commanders (Val-upa).

The sphere in which they operate is limited to what may be called chiefdom or  village-based society.

2. Traditional Priests:

• Within the hierarchical power structure, the priest occupied a vital
• position. The
• source of his authority lay on the assumption that he could control certain
• natural  phenomena: epidemics, floods, droughts, famines, etc., all of which
• Loomed   large and affected their means of livelihood and production.

Youth Leadership ( Val-upa ) :

• Another group of leaders who exerted considerable influence upon the Hmar society were the youth commanders (Val-upa) who operated through the institution of Buonzawl (bachelors’ dormitory).the Buonzawl serve as a sort of military wing of the village organization by imparting strict discipline and vigorous training in the art of tribal warfare and defense to youngsters (except women ) above fifteen years old. In times of peace, the youth commanders mobilized the youths and rendered free and compulsory services to the society.
• The youth commanders were normally people who had made outstanding contribution to the society. Their activities were regulated in such a manner as to serve the interest of the chief and the village. This is, however, not to ignore the fact that the chiefs and the councilors could at times be subjected to the will of the youth.

CONCLUSION:

One thing can be said for certain and that is- the Hmars and other cognate tribes of the Mizo- Chin- Kuki groups are more likely to be descended from the original Shans. In justification to this statement, it would be prudent to point out that the Hmar and others migrated from China the same time as the other Shans and that they moved out together to live together in Myanmar.

The Hmar folktales about their exodus from China and settlement in Shan prove that this conjecture may be more accurate that it may appear for many critics. The Hmars and other kindred tribes moved out of Shan (see folksong). Not only this, the tale of Chief Lersi points to the fact that some Hmars under the leadership of Chief Lersi moved back to Shan after moving out of Kachin and stayed there, further pointing to the fact that some Hmars still live in present Shan and retaining their original Shan identity to this day. The rest of the Hmars who did not follow Chief Lersi back to Shan moved to North- East India and lost their Shan identity in course of time. These Shan remnants are now called the Hmars, Luseis, etc. In this regard, the need for further study is strongly felt and it is hoped that organisations like North East India Centre for Indigenous Culture and Development Studies (NEICICDS) in collaboration with others will help to fill the vacuum and eventually bring the lost Shan tribes of North- East India closer to their destiny- the Shans.